Taphonomy

Taphonomy is the study of what forces influence a deposit before, during and after burial. Reitz and Wing (2008, p. 117) define taphonomy as “The study of the changes that influence a deposit”. Orton (2010) refers to taphonomy as “the study of all processes intervening between a live community of animals and the records in an analyst’s database”. The concept of taphonomy was first coined by the Russian palaeontologist Ivan Efremov in 1940, and translates to “laws of burial”.

Taphonomy is an important part of the excavations in order to improve the archaeological recorded from various sites. One often combine the use of zooarchaeological data with that from other sources like soil, arthropods, plants and other biological and geochemical evidences.

Environmental conditions can affect the archaeological remains.

The changes that may influence a deposit can be divided into two categories. The first one is the first-order processes, which the archaeologists have no control over, and the second one are the second-order changes, which the archaeologist and zooarchaeologist are directly responsible for having created. The first-order processes yield information about human decision-making, the history of the deposit, and former environmental conditions, all which might have affected the deposit in one way or another. The second-order changes are the decisions made during the excavation, identification process and analyses of the material. All the changes of the second-order are in one form or another, the result of choices that are made by the persons performing the excavations. These two processes are also known as Biostratinomy and Diagenesis.


In taphonomy, there are five stages in the creation of the archaeological material. The first stage is disarticulation. It occures after death and as the organism decays. It is the dismemberment of the organism when it is no longer held together by tissue, muscles or tendons. There is no longer anything to hold the piece together anymore. The second stage is dispersal. The dispersal is caused by natural events such as scavanger, floodings and similar events. The third stage is the accumulation. This is when the material, both organic and inorganic, buildsup on one location. Fossilization is when the organic material have been permated by mineral rich water and formed a fossil, and is the fourth stage. The fifth and final stage is mechanical alteration. This is when the material is physically altered through events such as transport, burial, excavation, etc. It should also be noted that these five stages does not only come succesive after each others, but they also interact and effect each other. The processes in one stage will influence the following ones.

Two aspects to taphonomy that is important to keep in min, is that taphonomy can be reconstructive or descriptive. Reconstructive means here that one controls for bias in the material, and one works back from the observed assemblage. While descriptive means that one detects and describe the events and processes that are of interests. The ratio and balance between these two aspects varies depending on what research one are doing.

The deposits are most often divided into three generalized categories, the kill or processing site residue category, the residential refuse (which includes that of which are associated with smaller camps, hamlets and also urban environments), and the intentional burials. Each of these categories represents a different part of the human’s life and sphere.

A Lightning Whelk (Busycon Sinistrum)

Gavin and McGovern (2007) discuss the usage of taphonomy in collaboration with osteology to analyse the skulls found at the Viking settlement of Hofstaðir on Iceland. Among the things they look at is how the animals were killed and the weathering and conditions of preservation of the skulls. There was different weathering on the skulls which indicated different amount of time exposed to the weather and wind, before they eventually ended up buried. This process is a part of the taphonomy. All changes and events that might effect a deposit, from the death of the animal, to its categorization in a collection, are different factors in how the remains have changed during the course of time.

Our understanding of the past and its conditions are coloured by the present, and is based on theories of uniformitarianism. Experiments and observations made today provides some insight into the disposal patterns and gives us access to possible reconstructions of the chain of events. Although the examination of archaeological remains might give us some answers about the past, it must be kept in mind that it is our modern interpretation of the past and it is possible that some of the past does not have modern analogues that are comparable.

________________________________________________________________

Further reading

Gavin, L. & McGovern, T. (2007) Bloody Slaughter: Ritual decapitation and display at the Viking settlement of Hofstadir, Iceland. European Journal of Archaeology. Volume 10 (1), pages 7-30.

Orton, D. C. (2010) Taphonomy and Interpretation: An Analytical Framework for Social Zooarchaeology. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. Volume 22 (3), pages 320-337. 

Reitz, E.J. & Wing, E.S. (2008) Zooarchaeology. Second Edition. New York, Cambridge University Press. 

An introduction to the field of Zooarchaeology

 Zooarchaeology is both a field of study on its own, and a subcategory of the vast field that Archaeology is. Zooarchaeology plays an important role in todays excavations and interpretations of the past, but what is Zooarchaeology? And why is it an important tool in Archaeology? 

Reitz and Wing (2008, p. 1) has defined Zooarchaeology as “The study of animal remains excavated from archaeological sites to understand the relationship between humans and their environment(s), especially between humans and other animal populations”.

The presence of certain species at a site
can tell us about climate, dietary habits, 
and potentially also cultural and societal 
conditions. 

Archaeology is often defined as the study of material remains from human activities to understand the past and past cultures. Zooarchaeology focuses primarily on the animal remains from human activities and other related activities to understand the past.

Why are animals also an important piece of the archaeological field? The importance of animals in archaeology lies in the fact that they provide several important key parts of societies. They give us companionship, food, raw materials for goods for personal use and trade, they can be symbols of power, play a part in the religious practices, transportations and more. The animals even helped us become more resilient to certain diseases when we domesticated them (Reitz and Wing, 2008).

The animals are an important part of the past. In order for us to fully understand the material remains from past civilizations, we need to know more about the material. That is why we use Zooarchaeology in the field of Archaeology. Zooarchaeology looks closer at the animals remains that might other ways have been put aside and overlooked. 

Some examples of the direction the approaches one can use in Zooarchaeology can have, are: focus on the diversity of the faunal assemblage and why it is so, a more osteology oriented point of view, how the human’s usage of the animals have changed over time and how the species might have changed as a result of this. 

__________________________________________________________________

Further reading

Reitz, E.J. & Wing, E.S. (2008) Zooarchaeology. Second Edition. New York, Cambridge University Press.

Lieu de Memoire

Lieu de Memoire is a term that was first used by the french historian Pierre Nora and it is more commonly known as Memory Space. Nora published his thoughs and views on the concept in the three-volume collection called Les Lieux de Memoire, the parts that have been translate and reprinted in english, is known under the name Realms of Memory. 

Lieu de Memoire, is a theory and term used in connection with the concept of collective memory. The most commonly spread memory spaces are actual places, but not limited to only that. It could also be events, people or the more abstract concept of symbolism. The place of remembrance may be marked with monumental structures, buildings or statues, and is meant to remind those who came later on, about the past. A place of memory might even have different meanings to different people, all depending on what views they have on what is remembered there (if they have good or bad associations with the “memory”). 

The monuments commemorating people and places are
examples on the use of Lieux de Memoire

At the Roman Forum, the usage of the memory space played a big role in the evolution of the spatial development. The Forum Romanum is a good example on the usage of this in Rome. The Forum was a public place which contained not only public buildings, but also various monuments of different kinds. Several of the monuements was changed and swittched out over time, often due to a shift in what was the desired events or people to be honored. 

The Arch of Septimus Severus, at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, is a triumphal arch in white marble. It was dedicated in 203 CE in honor of the victory in two campaigns againts the Parthians in 194-95 CE and 197-199 CE in the Parthian-Roman Wars (54 BCE - 217 CE). The campaigns honored, was lead by the Emperor Septimus Severus and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta. The arch served as a place of memory over not only the victories, but also as a rememberance of Septimus Severus and his sons. After Septimus Severus's death, his two sons served as co-Emperors untill Geta was assassinated. After Geta's death, Caracalla had all images and inscriptions referring to to Geta removed as a way to try and erase the memory of his brother. 

The Arch of Septimus Severus

At the Archaic Agora in Athens, the Stoa Poikile was constructed in the middle of the 5th century BCE. The stoa was decorated with painted wooden panels which displayed scenes from important battles where Athens had been victorious, as well as also scenes from the greek mythology. After the Battle of Pylos in 425 BCE, the bronze shields that were looted was displayes as proof of the Athenian military prowess. The Stoa served as a public place of rememberance of the battles that Athens had fought and won. The paintings displayed in the Stoa remained for more than 600 years before they were eventually removed. Generations upon generations of Athenians and visitors to Athens could visit the Stoa and see the displays of Athens former military glory. The stoa, the wooden panels and the shields displayed there, served as a reminder to the Athenians and the visitors, containing the memory of the former glory in the city's past. 

A surviving shield that were once displayed as a trophy and symbol
of the Athenian military prowess. (Agora Object: B 262)

The concept that have been coined Lieu de Memoire have been used for millenniums, even if it the concept itself was not defined untill in the more recent years. Through the changes and spatial use of ancient sites we can finde traces of the concept, and also how it changed over decades, centuries and even millenniums. The memory could be manipulated with the adding or removing of parts of the memorials containing the memory at the site. While it is common that there is a memorial in place to keep the memory, it is not always neccessary. It can be the place itself that keeps the memory. The sites of old battlefields are potential examples of that. 

__________________________________________________________________

Further reading:

Legg, S. (2005) Contesting and surviving memory: space, nation, and nostalgia in Les Lieux de Mémoire.

Nora, P. (1996) Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, Vol. 1 - Conflicts and Divisions. Columbia University Press.

Russell, A (2016) The Politics of Public Space in Republican Rome. Cambridge University Press. 

What is Archaeology?

Many might have heard about archaeologists like Howard Carter, who discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun. But what is archaeology really?

Archaeology is the study of the humans past and activities through the recovery and analysis of the material culture left behind from human activities in the past. In other words it means that the archaeologist study and try to understand and explain events in the past through the examinations of the material remains that is left behind.

The name Archaeology is derived from the greek words αρχαίος and λόγος. Which translates to ancient/old and word/speech/study. In other words Archaeology literally means the study of the old. It is both a part of the humanities and social science, and uses several methods from the field of the natural sciences. The combination of these fields have been an important part of archaeology for the past few decades. Archaeology has been through a long process to get to where it is today, but is still today ever-changing and evolving. It is one of the most diverse diciplines with its combination of social science and natural science. This can be seen in the many sub-cathergories of the field. Some of sub-cathergories are; Marine Archaology, Zooarchaeology, Paleoarchaeology, Environmental Archaeology, Archaeobotany, Experimental Archaeology, Classical Archaeology, Osteology and Ethnoarchaeology. 

As a dicipline, Archaeology started developing in the 1700s, but it did not blossom untill the late 19th and early 20th century. During the 1960s, the "New Archaeology" emerged. It combines several different fields in order to attempt to create a better understanding and interpretation of the past. The field of Archaeology is ever evolving even today.

Animals as Social Markers

The use of animals as social markes

When we look at animals as social markers, we look at them as something more than just food for survival. All deposit made by human agency involves ritual, but much of the symbolic role of the animals leaves little or no distinct evidences.

A White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus)

Changes in the social role of an animal might be similar to those associated with changes in the seasonal and temporal patterns, technology, the environment and the exchange systems. The ritual and social status might alter the archaeological records, if the status of the animal have impact on where, how and when the remains are discarded. The appearance of exotic animals on a site, are usually associated with migrations, colonization and acculturation. The usage or avoidance of certain animals in the diet, may be the reflections of dietary laws within the social boundaries of the society. The way animals are viewed in the spiritual world and the belief systems of a society can be reflected in the archaeological remains. The result of this may be that some animals were “sacred”, and thus avoided as sacrifices, on the other hand, others might have been preferred. The age of death and the season of death might give us some insight in the reasons for the offering.

Russell (2012) summaries that combining zooarchaeological evidences with artistic representation and textual information, gives us a richer understanding the symbolic role that animals might have held in the past. This is due to the fact that even though there might be absence of texts, representations and ethnohistory, we can get clues to the past belief system through examining the spatial distribution and the context of the remains. 

______________________________________________________________________

Further reading

Reitz, E.J. & Wing, E.S. (2008) Zooarchaeology. Second Edition. New York, Cambridge University Press.

Russell, N. (2012) Social Zooarchaeology. Cambridge University Press.

Book review - The Story of Writing, Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms, by Andrew Robinson

The Story of Writing - Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms, written by Andrew Robinson. 

"Writing is among the greatest inventions in human history, perhaps the greatest invention, since it made history possible. Yet it is a skill most writers take for granted." This is how the introduction in the book starts, and it is a statment that I can agree on. Writing truly is one of our species greatest inventions.

The topics this book discuss are how writing works and the process of desiphering the ancient languages. There is a chapter on each language (Cuneiform, Egyotian Hieroglyphs, Linear B and Mayan Glyphs). There is also a chapter on undesiphered scripts, which includes Linear A and Etruscan scripts. Robinson have also mentioned some living languages, like Chinese and Japanese writings, and the evolution of them. He ends the book with an postscript about the writing in the new millennuim.

The book is richly illustrated with more than 355 illustrations and pictures on the 232 pages, with about 50 of them in colours. It gives you an better understanding into the ancient written languages that is mentioned, when you get to see several different pictures and sketches of them.

The book is well written, and anyone can read it without having any background knowledge about the topics discussed. It is worded in such a way that both those reading it purely for entertainment purposes and those reading it to get an introduction into the field of ancient writings, will find it enlightening. For those interested in Egyptian Hieroglyphs, there is even one small exercise they can do, in order to tray and decipher some modern names written in hieroglyphs. (Which I by the way loved). It is the only exercise in the book, and it is the only thing that I found that could be considered a weakness in the entire book. I would have loved it even more if there were more exercises to do, but it is easy to make your own exercises in order to play with the languages for fun.

I bought this book a while ago when I came across it online and I highly recomend this book to others who are interested in ancient languages and the history of writing. It gives you a good introduction to several of the ancient written languages without having to get a new book for each language. This is one of my absolute favourite books, and it is not on the literature lists of any of the courses I have had so far during my studies. I read it just fun and because I was interested in the topic. All in all, it is a great book to read.  Enjoy.

__________________________________________________________

Details about the book:

Robinson, A. (2007) The Story of Writing - Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms. London, Thames & Hudson Ltd.       ISBN: 9780500286609

The history and theory of Zooarchaeology

Zooarchaeology as a discipline is the result of a long process that is still ever-changing and evolving today. The zooarchaeological research has two interrelated goals; to understand the biology and ecology of animals across time and space, and to understand the structure and function of the human behaviour. Zooarchaeology uses the remains of the osseous tissues like bone, horn and antlers. Soft tissues like fish scales, cartilage, skin, feathers or muscles might also be used if they are preserved.

One of the first to use what is today zooarchaeology, were John Frere who in 1790 included the bone data from a site in archaeological work. His work went unnoticed and ignored until 1850, when Charles Lyell were influenced by Frere’s work. The Danish zoologist Japetus Steenstrup excavated in 1843 shell middens in Denmark, and deducted that these middens were not natural and were in fact created by human activities. 

A Southern Quahog (Mercenaria Campechiensis)

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the dominant theories were the Environmental Determinism theory, where it was the environment that caused the cultural phenomena, and the culture was viewed as a passive, rather than an active agent. The counterpart to this theory, were the Environmental Possibilism, where the environment might permit certain cultural developments, but there are always cultural alternatives. It was primarily amateurs without formal archaeological training. Archaeologists began developing interest for research that required knowledge of the context and function of the material in the 1940s. Worked specimens and remain would be described in the text, while the unmodified materials would only be mentioned in a brief appendix or note. An increasing number of archaeologist wanted their faunal samples identified by experts, but there were none zooarchaeological expert at that time. Zooarchaeology got an increasingly focus and importance as a field after this. 

It blossomed as a discipline in the 1960s as a field of study in the processual archaology, the “new archaeology” supported by David Clarke and Lewis Binford. Binford did several ethnoarchaeological studies that have helped give an understanding into some of the aspects that is common with zooarchaeology.

There are three facets in today’s modern zooarchaeological research. There is the methodological research, which focuses on the many quantitative and analytical methods in zooarchaeology, the anthropological research, which focuses on the relationship between humans and animals during the course of time, and the biological research, which focuses on work which combines the fields of archaeogenetics and zooarchaeology.

Sheeps are amongst the domesticated animals in which
the aDNA have been compared to the DNA of the modern
day desendants, in order to trace the domestication of them,
and subsequent also the spread of agriculture.  

An example on the use of zooarchaeology can be found when studying how the agriculture spread during the "neolithic revolution". The study of the genetic material in animals associated with agriculture have been examined and the evolution of the domestication of the species have been traced from the Fertile Crecent and towards the Central- and North-Europe, through the Mediterranean basin. 

___________________________________________________

Further reading

Reitz, E.J. & Wing, E.S. (2008) Zooarchaeology. Second Edition. New York, Cambridge University Press.

Inscriptions as an Archaeological source

What are incriptions?

Inscriptions are both archaeological material and literary sources at the same time. Something which makes them a unique and important source for information. The most common and widely spread inscriptions, is the Roman and Greek ones, from the antiquity. There have been made an estimate that there exists more than 300.000 inscriptions from this period, with approximately 1.000 new one being added each year. The study of these inscriptions is known as epigraphy, from Greek, and literally translates to “inscription”.

Inscriptions are specifically written text and not symbols, written on non-common materials and surfaces. Common writing materials is paper, papyrus, parchment and etc., which means that inscriptions are written on other materials like stone, wood, and metals. The inscriptions can take many forms, like being etched into the material, made by mosaic, or even painted onto the surface. There have also been various combinations of materials. An example of this is the Arch of Severus in Rome, where the letters were first carved into the stone before the individually made bronze letters was attached into the stone. Although, it was not necessary to carve the letters into the stone, as is was also possible to attach the letters directly onto the stone.

Inscriptions can be found on a wide range of various items, all with their own advantages and disadvantages. Some of these items can be walls, pavements, other architectonical elements, pottery, tombs and monuments, and also on coins. 

The writings on the Rosetta stone are
examples of inscriptions

What usage and advantages do inscriptions have?

One of the things that makes the inscriptions unique and an important source for information in the field of archaeology is fact that the inscriptions are contemporary sources as they are written in their time. The objects and the structures that were inscribed, can have been made long before the items were inscribed, but none the less, the inscriptions provide us an insight into the time that they were actually written, even if the inscriptions were added at a later time than the rest of the material. This is one of the things that makes the inscriptions so unique. They can provide information even if the older material has been “disturbed”.

Due to the fact that the inscriptions are contemporary texts, they give us a view into how the people from the past perceived their world. The inscriptions display a point of view that the other archaeological material is lacking.

The most common inscriptions are the inscriptions on the tombs and the monuments. Inscriptions on gravestones and tombs, telling about who is buried there, tells us about the individuals that lived and died in the past. Details about some peoples life and achievements, sometimes also how they died. Larger grave monuments were erected in order to display the and remember those who affected the society in on a larger scale than that of the common man. The emperor, military leaders, heroes and others who “proved” themselves might have larger grave monuments erected to remember them by. Sometimes paid by family and friends, or even erected by the public or someone who wanted to prove themselves worthy of remembrance. Another type of monuments are triumph monuments. The classic example of this is the Triumph arches. The Arch of Augustus, mentioned earlier is the example of one. Plaques with inscriptions could be added to buildings, monuments, structures and sculptures after having been restored or changed to serve a new purpose.

The temples usually have dedication to deities often as a part of the architecture and design of the buildings. The inscriptions telling what deities the temple is dedicate to, and sometimes also who erected the temple. On a wall in the temple of Rome and Augustus, in Ankara, there is a large inscription called the Res Gestae, which is the Augustus’s autobiography which he dictated before his death. It tells the story about his military and political successes. This inscription tells us not only about Augustus’s achievements but also serves as a commemoration and a monument to him. It both give a point of view into a person and parts of his life, and also about the political situation and changes during his life.

Claridge (2010) give several examples on various coins with different inscriptions. These coins’ present various monuments combined with inscriptions telling what it is that is depicted in the coins. These depictions of the monuments helps to provide information about structures, monuments and buildings that may no longer exists, that have been destroyed or that have undergone changes or restorations. The name and dates inscribed alongside the pictures gives us knowledge about the changes that the architectonical structures have undergone. One example on this, is the depiction of the Arch of Augustus on a coin from 29 BCE, a monument which have been completely destroyed, and which there is little or no physical remains left from (there are debates surrounding certain fragments and whether or not they are from the arch). Another example is the depiction of the Curia on a coin from 28 BCE. The Curia have been built, damaged, and then rebuilt multiple times throughout the years. This coin shows an earlier version of the senate house in Rome.

Skaare (1968) presents coins which gives several examples on the usage of inscriptions as a part of a political message and propaganda. The coins have portraits of the emperor alongside their name and often dates, and sometimes even a small message that were to be spread amongst the people. These coins with the corresponding portraits is in addition to the propaganda message, also a source for additional information on sculptures and busts. They might help, based on the portraits, provide an approximately date and a name to sculptures.

Another example on the usage of inscriptions as a source for information about political practises and propaganda can be found in Pompeii. The conditions for preservation have been especially favourable there, and thus a number of inscriptions painted onto the walls of houses have survived up until today. The election inscriptions painted on the walls, are campaign slogans of various types. This gives us an insight into the usage of propaganda and this aspect of the political and daily life of the people in Pompeii at the time of its demise.

In the daily life, inscriptions could be found on pottery amongst other things. The garum amphoras (fish sauce) is an example of this. The inscriptions telling what was on the containers and also the “brand”. A large quantity of amphoras inscribed with the words Scaurus’s garum have been found all around the Mediterranean. The spread of the inscribed pottery tells us about the extent of the trade network in the Mediterranean and also about what gods it was that were exported and imported.

In a villa in Pompeii, there have been found a fountain with mosaic covering the bottom of it. This mosaic depicts the Scaurus’s garum amphoras and even displays the inscriptions which is found on the actual pottery. This can tell us a little about how certain thing were depicted and how things were. A depiction from the everyday life.

Floors and pavements could also be decorated and inlayed with inscriptions, all telling a story or conveying a message to those who saw it. Keppie (1968, p. 113) gives an example on a mosaic floor from Ostia. This particular inscription provided an advertisement of the activities of the traders and shippers that were located there.

Other more commonly used items could be decorated with inscriptions just like the pottery containing Scaurus’s garum was. The gaming-board from the Catacombs of Saints Marcus and Marcellianus in Rome is an example of an item decorated and used in the everyday life.

Inscriptions can be used in combination with symbols and illustrations. The usage of inscriptions on maps not made on common writing materials in an example of this. The Forma Urbis Romae, also known as the Severan Marble Plan, is a gigantic marble map, which covered an entire wall. It consisted for a large number of individual slates, mounted together to form the map. The exact purpose of the map is unknown, but it originally depicted the entire city plan of Rome. Only fragments have survived until today, and several of them have been pieced together by the inscriptions on them. The inscriptions providing information alongside the symbols, to whoever knew how they were to be interpreted. To us, it provides parts of the layout of the buildings in Roma at a certain point, and it appears that slates might have been change during the years (variations in style and quality).

Hieroglyphs(inscriptions) used together with illustrations

What are the problems and challenges that we face when interpreting inscriptions?

One thing that one have to keep in mind when interpreting inscriptions is the very same fact that is makes them unique. They provides the points of view of those who wrote them. The reason for why this have to be kept in mind, can me summarized by the quote that “the history is written by the victors”. In other words, we might not get the full picture by just one point of view. There might be bias that we do not know about from the angel we look at things.

A problem that the inscriptions have in common with the other archaeological material, is the survival rate of the remains. Is the material that have survived up until modern time representative for how the reality was? Can me make and interpretation that displays the reality of the past? There are many factors influencing this. A lot of material have been lost due to it being destroyed by fires, having been recycled into newer purposes due to shortage of resources or it might simply have deteriorated and withered away due to unfavourable conditions for conservations. There is also the fact that inscriptions are often found in or close to human activities, something cities and urban centres are an example of. On places where the settlements have continued up until today, the areal have had to been reused multiple times, something which means that the newer buildings and structures have been built on top of the old one. Because of this, it is often hard or at times even impossible to excavate the area.

One of the problems and disadvantages with inscriptions, is the dating of them. It is often difficult to date inscriptions unless there is an actual date (a year) listed alongside the inscription, this is due to the common lack of organic material for dating and the fact that inscription may have been made a different time than the object or structure itself.

It is possible to get a relative dating on an inscription based on the grammar, vocabulary and how the inscription is written, as the language evolves and changes over time. If one have information about the language at certain times in the past, then one can estimate an approximately dating for when the inscription was made.

The abbreviation and what titles is in use, and more specifically how many times a title was given, are all indicators that can give an even more accurate dating than just the language itself. The number of times the titles have been given, makes it possible to count and reach a rather accurate year for when the inscription was made. The number of titles and how many times they were awarded became commonly used by the emperors during the Principate. The statue base from Ostia, commemorating Septimius Severus and the inscribed panel and fragments from the Arch of Claudius, in Rome are examples on inscriptions which provides the titles and the number of times that they had been awarded when the inscription was mad, and thus they can provide a date based on the number of titles.

A challenge which is also associated with the dilemmas around the dating of the inscriptions, are forgeries. This is due to the fact that the dating of the inscriptions may be difficult or impossible to accurately pinpoint. Because there have been an interest in and demand of archaeological material in the previous centuries (and also even today), forgeries have been made in order to achieve profits and financial gain.

__________________________________________________________________

Further reading

Claridge, A. (2010) Rome, an Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Keppie, L. (1991) Understanding Roman Inscriptions. Eastbourne, Anthony Rowe Ltd.

Skaare, K. (1968) Mynter fra Antikken. Oslo, Universitetets Myntkabinett.

Archaeogenetics

What are archaeogenetics?
Archaeogenetics is the study of ancient DNA (aDNA). The british archaeologist, Colin Renfrew was the first one to concieve and use the term for this subfield or archaeology and zooarchaeology.

In Archaeogenetics we use the genetic material of the faunal remains to document genetic changes to the species. The genetic material that is extracted from the remains, are compared to the that of modern species. This is based on the assumption that modern, domesticated animals retain features from the early domestic animals from the same geographic area.

Why are Archaeogenetics important as a part of Zooarchaeology? The zooarchaeological research relies heavily on the fragmented skeletal remains to detect the changes in animals. Because of the fragmented state of the material, ancient DNA, lipids and stable isotopes, in addition to the morphology, are important pieces of the puzzle in understanding and interpreting the data collected.

As Zeder (2012) discuss in her paper, we can see what is called the pleiotropic effect when studying Archaeogenetics. This effect may be the result of mutations in certain genes. Changes in the morphology is thought to be the result of the selection of preferred traits when breeding in the domestication process. The changes from the undomesticated animals and plants, to the domesticated versions of them in present day, is examples on the changes in the morphology that can be traced throuch the aDNA. These changes can be used to trace the path the species have spread, and together with dating of the material, they can give details on the timeframe for when the changes occured. 

___________________________________________________________________

Further reading

Reitz, E.J. & Wing, E.S. (2008) Zooarchaeology. Second Edition. New York, Cambridge University Press. 

Zeder, M.A. (2012) The Domestication of Animals. Journal of Anthropological Research. Volume 68 (2), pages 161-190.

GIS, what is it and which uses does it have in Archaeology?

In todays archaeological work, digital tools are getting more and more used. This is a short introductuon to the term GIS, one of the many digital tools that is available on most of todays excavations. In order to collect and present the data that makes out the foundation of many of the present day archaeological documentations and studies, one often have to make use of differnet softwares. Most common is the use of Intrasis (where one records and document the data) and ArcGIS (where one analyses and present the data). 

GIS, short for Geographic Information Systems, lets us manage, store, vizualise and analyse spatial and geographic data. It can be used to analyse differenct spatial data, often layerd and compaered to the variables and factors of ones study. An example of this can be hydrological data, both estimates of the past levels as well as present day data, which in turn can be layered with the changes in the topography of the landscape. An example on the use of GIS to display sites and sort them according to set parameters, is given in the following paragraph. 

The following illustration displays the use of GIS to sort and show the locations of independant heritage and find sites. By inputting a map with geospatial data, and a list from a database, also with geospatial data in order to correctly correlate it to the map, we can show the locations on the map used. We can add layers to the map in order to display differnent features, both as independed layers and in relation to the other layers that we have added to it. As long as the database used, also differentiate what type of site it is, then we also have the possibillity of sorting the sites and get the software to only show us the locations that fits with the search parameters we limited it to. For example, if settlements are within a certain distance from the nearest watercourses.

An example of using GIS to show heritage and find sites on a map.

Some of the simpler uses of GIS, is simple digitalization of schetces and drawings from the fieldwork. Three illustrated examples of this is shown further down in the post. By scanning the drawings and then using the software to digitalize it, we get figures and ilustrations by utalizing the data.

It is possible to create layers upon layers in the software, layers which can be turned on and off in order to show the desired details. An example on this use can be when one makes a drawing of the excavated layers in a shaft. In the following figure we have three different layers displayed along with the stones(in blue) marked in on the original field drawings. 

An example on the vizualisation of the plan structure of a dig site.

It does not only have to be layers we display. We can also display other features on the plans. On the example here, from a rock shelter, the two testpits are marked and labeld according to what number they had in the total amount of test pits dug on registration.

An example of the vizualisation of the placemnt of test pits in a rock shelter. 

We can also use this way of digitalization to illustrate the profiles and cuts done in shafts and test pits. The following figure is from a test pit, and shows the different layers that was encounterd during the dig. In this example, we have differnt layers, all listed at the side of the illustration. If we wanted more details listed her, we could have added the data and used different setting in the software in order to achieve it.

An example on the vizualisation of the stratigraphy of a test pit. 

There are a wide range of different GIS-softwares used world-wide. The examples here have been  made using the software ArcGIS (made by Esri - Environmental Systems Research Institute).

Greek - Introduction to the basics of the alphabet

This is an introduction to the basics of the ancient Greek alphabet. It is ment to give those interested in learning a little greek an understanding of this version of the Greek alphabet. Modern Greek are similar to the ancient, but the grammar and vocabulary are different.

Many might recognise several of the letters in the picture below. I have listed both the upper- and lowercase letters, along with the name of each letter in both Greek and English, as well as the general pronounciation of them. A good way to learn the different letters, is to work on connecting the right uppercase letter with the corresponding lowercase letter.

(Click on the picture in order to enlarge it if some of the letters are hard to read)

Breathings

There are no h letter in the Greek alphabet, but the sound can still occur on the beginning of words. Some word begins with a vowel or an diphthong, and an h sound(but no letter for it). We therefore have something called spiritus asper (also called rough breathing or aspiration). This is indicated by a mark that looks like an opening singel qoute with the opening towards the right, above the first vowel or diphthong of the word, as in εὑρίσκω - pronounced: heurísko (which translates to: I find, I discover).

When an h sound is not to be pronounced at the beginning of a word that begins with a vowel or a diphthong, we use what is called spiritus lenis (also called smooth breathing). It is the absence of aspiration. The mark for this, is the opposite of that from rough breathing. Here the opening is towards the left.

Every word that begins with a vowel or a diphtong will eather have a rough or a smooth breathing. All words beginning with ρ (the letter r), also always have a rough breathing, e.g. ῥάβδος - pronounced: hrabdos (which translates to: wand, stick, rod). 

Diphthongs

Diphthongs, also known as gliding vowels, are the combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. The Greek diphthongs are as following: 

Other vowel combinations

We also have something called digraphs in the Greek grammar. Digraphs are the combinations of vowels that represents a single sound. In Greek there are two long vowel sounds that are represented by digraphs. They are as following:

Paired consonants

Most paired consonants, such as λλ μμ ππ and ττ, should be pronounced and held twice as long as a single consonant. Exeptions to this general rule, is γγ γκ γξ and γχ. Here the first γ is pronounced as the ng in sing. An example on this is άγγελος - pronounced: angelos (messenger). 

A small exercise for fun

Here is a small exercise that you can do for fun to see if you can recognise the names that are written in Greek letters. It is the names of The Twelve Olympian Gods.

Forma Urbis Romae

Forma Urbis Romae, also known as the Severan Marble Plan, were created between 203 and 211 CE, under the rule of the emperor Septimus Severus. The marble plan was a map, detailing Rome, where buildings, fora and roads were marked and named. The marble plan was placed on the wall of the Temple pf Peace at the Forum Vespasiani. The wall where the marble plan was situated can still be seen today, though none of the marble slabs are still there. The wall can be seen when standing along the Via dei Fori Imeriali and watching towards the Basilica of Maxentius. The wall of the marble plan is on the building right next to the basilica.

The marble plan depicts the depicts the buildings in great details, displaying architectural elemements such as columns and stairs. The streets and the buildings, both public and privat ones, are described with their names listed on the corresponding feature on the map.

The original site of the marble plan is on the other side of the wall in the middle

The marble plan meassured 18 x 13 meters and consisted of 150 marble slabs. Of these, only c. 10% have survived. At total of 1186 fragments of the marble plan have survived. An additional 87 fragments are known through drawings from the Renaissance, though the fragments themselves are lost.

Forum Romanum is one of the many fora depicted on the marble plan,
the details of it such as the Tabernae in the Basilica
and the columns in the temple is displayed

All of the known pieces of the Forma Urbis Romae, both curently existing and drawings of lost pieces, is collected in an online, searchable database, created by the Stanford Digital Forma Urbis Romae Project.

Back in business

The pages have been through a revamping and is now back in business again. The new and improved content will be trickling in during the comming weeks. Some new and exciting topics will be intoduced in the following month.

Down for rewriting

The posts at this page is currently down for a rewriting of the content and quality. The site should be back up with new and improved content during March-April.