The history and theory of Zooarchaeology

Zooarchaeology as a discipline is the result of a long process that is still ever-changing and evolving today. The zooarchaeological research has two interrelated goals; to understand the biology and ecology of animals across time and space, and to understand the structure and function of the human behaviour. Zooarchaeology uses the remains of the osseous tissues like bone, horn and antlers. Soft tissues like fish scales, cartilage, skin, feathers or muscles might also be used if they are preserved.

One of the first to use what is today zooarchaeology, were John Frere who in 1790 included the bone data from a site in archaeological work. His work went unnoticed and ignored until 1850, when Charles Lyell were influenced by Frere’s work. The Danish zoologist Japetus Steenstrup excavated in 1843 shell middens in Denmark, and deducted that these middens were not natural and were in fact created by human activities. 

A Southern Quahog (Mercenaria Campechiensis)

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the dominant theories were the Environmental Determinism theory, where it was the environment that caused the cultural phenomena, and the culture was viewed as a passive, rather than an active agent. The counterpart to this theory, were the Environmental Possibilism, where the environment might permit certain cultural developments, but there are always cultural alternatives. It was primarily amateurs without formal archaeological training. Archaeologists began developing interest for research that required knowledge of the context and function of the material in the 1940s. Worked specimens and remain would be described in the text, while the unmodified materials would only be mentioned in a brief appendix or note. An increasing number of archaeologist wanted their faunal samples identified by experts, but there were none zooarchaeological expert at that time. Zooarchaeology got an increasingly focus and importance as a field after this. 

It blossomed as a discipline in the 1960s as a field of study in the processual archaology, the “new archaeology” supported by David Clarke and Lewis Binford. Binford did several ethnoarchaeological studies that have helped give an understanding into some of the aspects that is common with zooarchaeology.

There are three facets in today’s modern zooarchaeological research. There is the methodological research, which focuses on the many quantitative and analytical methods in zooarchaeology, the anthropological research, which focuses on the relationship between humans and animals during the course of time, and the biological research, which focuses on work which combines the fields of archaeogenetics and zooarchaeology.

Sheeps are amongst the domesticated animals in which
the aDNA have been compared to the DNA of the modern
day desendants, in order to trace the domestication of them,
and subsequent also the spread of agriculture.  

An example on the use of zooarchaeology can be found when studying how the agriculture spread during the "neolithic revolution". The study of the genetic material in animals associated with agriculture have been examined and the evolution of the domestication of the species have been traced from the Fertile Crecent and towards the Central- and North-Europe, through the Mediterranean basin. 

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Further reading

Reitz, E.J. & Wing, E.S. (2008) Zooarchaeology. Second Edition. New York, Cambridge University Press.

Inscriptions as an Archaeological source

What are incriptions?

Inscriptions are both archaeological material and literary sources at the same time. Something which makes them a unique and important source for information. The most common and widely spread inscriptions, is the Roman and Greek ones, from the antiquity. There have been made an estimate that there exists more than 300.000 inscriptions from this period, with approximately 1.000 new one being added each year. The study of these inscriptions is known as epigraphy, from Greek, and literally translates to “inscription”.

Inscriptions are specifically written text and not symbols, written on non-common materials and surfaces. Common writing materials is paper, papyrus, parchment and etc., which means that inscriptions are written on other materials like stone, wood, and metals. The inscriptions can take many forms, like being etched into the material, made by mosaic, or even painted onto the surface. There have also been various combinations of materials. An example of this is the Arch of Severus in Rome, where the letters were first carved into the stone before the individually made bronze letters was attached into the stone. Although, it was not necessary to carve the letters into the stone, as is was also possible to attach the letters directly onto the stone.

Inscriptions can be found on a wide range of various items, all with their own advantages and disadvantages. Some of these items can be walls, pavements, other architectonical elements, pottery, tombs and monuments, and also on coins. 

The writings on the Rosetta stone are
examples of inscriptions

What usage and advantages do inscriptions have?

One of the things that makes the inscriptions unique and an important source for information in the field of archaeology is fact that the inscriptions are contemporary sources as they are written in their time. The objects and the structures that were inscribed, can have been made long before the items were inscribed, but none the less, the inscriptions provide us an insight into the time that they were actually written, even if the inscriptions were added at a later time than the rest of the material. This is one of the things that makes the inscriptions so unique. They can provide information even if the older material has been “disturbed”.

Due to the fact that the inscriptions are contemporary texts, they give us a view into how the people from the past perceived their world. The inscriptions display a point of view that the other archaeological material is lacking.

The most common inscriptions are the inscriptions on the tombs and the monuments. Inscriptions on gravestones and tombs, telling about who is buried there, tells us about the individuals that lived and died in the past. Details about some peoples life and achievements, sometimes also how they died. Larger grave monuments were erected in order to display the and remember those who affected the society in on a larger scale than that of the common man. The emperor, military leaders, heroes and others who “proved” themselves might have larger grave monuments erected to remember them by. Sometimes paid by family and friends, or even erected by the public or someone who wanted to prove themselves worthy of remembrance. Another type of monuments are triumph monuments. The classic example of this is the Triumph arches. The Arch of Augustus, mentioned earlier is the example of one. Plaques with inscriptions could be added to buildings, monuments, structures and sculptures after having been restored or changed to serve a new purpose.

The temples usually have dedication to deities often as a part of the architecture and design of the buildings. The inscriptions telling what deities the temple is dedicate to, and sometimes also who erected the temple. On a wall in the temple of Rome and Augustus, in Ankara, there is a large inscription called the Res Gestae, which is the Augustus’s autobiography which he dictated before his death. It tells the story about his military and political successes. This inscription tells us not only about Augustus’s achievements but also serves as a commemoration and a monument to him. It both give a point of view into a person and parts of his life, and also about the political situation and changes during his life.

Claridge (2010) give several examples on various coins with different inscriptions. These coins’ present various monuments combined with inscriptions telling what it is that is depicted in the coins. These depictions of the monuments helps to provide information about structures, monuments and buildings that may no longer exists, that have been destroyed or that have undergone changes or restorations. The name and dates inscribed alongside the pictures gives us knowledge about the changes that the architectonical structures have undergone. One example on this, is the depiction of the Arch of Augustus on a coin from 29 BCE, a monument which have been completely destroyed, and which there is little or no physical remains left from (there are debates surrounding certain fragments and whether or not they are from the arch). Another example is the depiction of the Curia on a coin from 28 BCE. The Curia have been built, damaged, and then rebuilt multiple times throughout the years. This coin shows an earlier version of the senate house in Rome.

Skaare (1968) presents coins which gives several examples on the usage of inscriptions as a part of a political message and propaganda. The coins have portraits of the emperor alongside their name and often dates, and sometimes even a small message that were to be spread amongst the people. These coins with the corresponding portraits is in addition to the propaganda message, also a source for additional information on sculptures and busts. They might help, based on the portraits, provide an approximately date and a name to sculptures.

Another example on the usage of inscriptions as a source for information about political practises and propaganda can be found in Pompeii. The conditions for preservation have been especially favourable there, and thus a number of inscriptions painted onto the walls of houses have survived up until today. The election inscriptions painted on the walls, are campaign slogans of various types. This gives us an insight into the usage of propaganda and this aspect of the political and daily life of the people in Pompeii at the time of its demise.

In the daily life, inscriptions could be found on pottery amongst other things. The garum amphoras (fish sauce) is an example of this. The inscriptions telling what was on the containers and also the “brand”. A large quantity of amphoras inscribed with the words Scaurus’s garum have been found all around the Mediterranean. The spread of the inscribed pottery tells us about the extent of the trade network in the Mediterranean and also about what gods it was that were exported and imported.

In a villa in Pompeii, there have been found a fountain with mosaic covering the bottom of it. This mosaic depicts the Scaurus’s garum amphoras and even displays the inscriptions which is found on the actual pottery. This can tell us a little about how certain thing were depicted and how things were. A depiction from the everyday life.

Floors and pavements could also be decorated and inlayed with inscriptions, all telling a story or conveying a message to those who saw it. Keppie (1968, p. 113) gives an example on a mosaic floor from Ostia. This particular inscription provided an advertisement of the activities of the traders and shippers that were located there.

Other more commonly used items could be decorated with inscriptions just like the pottery containing Scaurus’s garum was. The gaming-board from the Catacombs of Saints Marcus and Marcellianus in Rome is an example of an item decorated and used in the everyday life.

Inscriptions can be used in combination with symbols and illustrations. The usage of inscriptions on maps not made on common writing materials in an example of this. The Forma Urbis Romae, also known as the Severan Marble Plan, is a gigantic marble map, which covered an entire wall. It consisted for a large number of individual slates, mounted together to form the map. The exact purpose of the map is unknown, but it originally depicted the entire city plan of Rome. Only fragments have survived until today, and several of them have been pieced together by the inscriptions on them. The inscriptions providing information alongside the symbols, to whoever knew how they were to be interpreted. To us, it provides parts of the layout of the buildings in Roma at a certain point, and it appears that slates might have been change during the years (variations in style and quality).

Hieroglyphs(inscriptions) used together with illustrations

What are the problems and challenges that we face when interpreting inscriptions?

One thing that one have to keep in mind when interpreting inscriptions is the very same fact that is makes them unique. They provides the points of view of those who wrote them. The reason for why this have to be kept in mind, can me summarized by the quote that “the history is written by the victors”. In other words, we might not get the full picture by just one point of view. There might be bias that we do not know about from the angel we look at things.

A problem that the inscriptions have in common with the other archaeological material, is the survival rate of the remains. Is the material that have survived up until modern time representative for how the reality was? Can me make and interpretation that displays the reality of the past? There are many factors influencing this. A lot of material have been lost due to it being destroyed by fires, having been recycled into newer purposes due to shortage of resources or it might simply have deteriorated and withered away due to unfavourable conditions for conservations. There is also the fact that inscriptions are often found in or close to human activities, something cities and urban centres are an example of. On places where the settlements have continued up until today, the areal have had to been reused multiple times, something which means that the newer buildings and structures have been built on top of the old one. Because of this, it is often hard or at times even impossible to excavate the area.

One of the problems and disadvantages with inscriptions, is the dating of them. It is often difficult to date inscriptions unless there is an actual date (a year) listed alongside the inscription, this is due to the common lack of organic material for dating and the fact that inscription may have been made a different time than the object or structure itself.

It is possible to get a relative dating on an inscription based on the grammar, vocabulary and how the inscription is written, as the language evolves and changes over time. If one have information about the language at certain times in the past, then one can estimate an approximately dating for when the inscription was made.

The abbreviation and what titles is in use, and more specifically how many times a title was given, are all indicators that can give an even more accurate dating than just the language itself. The number of times the titles have been given, makes it possible to count and reach a rather accurate year for when the inscription was made. The number of titles and how many times they were awarded became commonly used by the emperors during the Principate. The statue base from Ostia, commemorating Septimius Severus and the inscribed panel and fragments from the Arch of Claudius, in Rome are examples on inscriptions which provides the titles and the number of times that they had been awarded when the inscription was mad, and thus they can provide a date based on the number of titles.

A challenge which is also associated with the dilemmas around the dating of the inscriptions, are forgeries. This is due to the fact that the dating of the inscriptions may be difficult or impossible to accurately pinpoint. Because there have been an interest in and demand of archaeological material in the previous centuries (and also even today), forgeries have been made in order to achieve profits and financial gain.

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Further reading

Claridge, A. (2010) Rome, an Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Keppie, L. (1991) Understanding Roman Inscriptions. Eastbourne, Anthony Rowe Ltd.

Skaare, K. (1968) Mynter fra Antikken. Oslo, Universitetets Myntkabinett.

Archaeogenetics

What are archaeogenetics?
Archaeogenetics is the study of ancient DNA (aDNA). The british archaeologist, Colin Renfrew was the first one to concieve and use the term for this subfield or archaeology and zooarchaeology.

In Archaeogenetics we use the genetic material of the faunal remains to document genetic changes to the species. The genetic material that is extracted from the remains, are compared to the that of modern species. This is based on the assumption that modern, domesticated animals retain features from the early domestic animals from the same geographic area.

Why are Archaeogenetics important as a part of Zooarchaeology? The zooarchaeological research relies heavily on the fragmented skeletal remains to detect the changes in animals. Because of the fragmented state of the material, ancient DNA, lipids and stable isotopes, in addition to the morphology, are important pieces of the puzzle in understanding and interpreting the data collected.

As Zeder (2012) discuss in her paper, we can see what is called the pleiotropic effect when studying Archaeogenetics. This effect may be the result of mutations in certain genes. Changes in the morphology is thought to be the result of the selection of preferred traits when breeding in the domestication process. The changes from the undomesticated animals and plants, to the domesticated versions of them in present day, is examples on the changes in the morphology that can be traced throuch the aDNA. These changes can be used to trace the path the species have spread, and together with dating of the material, they can give details on the timeframe for when the changes occured. 

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Further reading

Reitz, E.J. & Wing, E.S. (2008) Zooarchaeology. Second Edition. New York, Cambridge University Press. 

Zeder, M.A. (2012) The Domestication of Animals. Journal of Anthropological Research. Volume 68 (2), pages 161-190.